Abstract
Natural hazards, such as floods and earthquakes, are becoming more common. Some point out that the frequency of floods may be the result of ongoing climate change. Therefore, efforts are being made to increase resilience, including economic resilience to natural hazards. Building resilience requires the right capacities. This article provides examples of activities that can help to develop coping and adaptation capacities in the event of natural hazards. The two types of capacities, selected for this article, were chosen based on the Australian Natural Disaster Resilience Index. Within the framework of the ability to cope with natural hazards, there are components such as social capital, economic capital, infrastructure and planning, emergency services, social capital, and information and management. For the purpose of the article, infrastructure and planning were selected. When it comes to developing adaptive skills, effective governance and the engagement of local communities are key.
References
Aldunce, P., Beilin, R., Handmer, J., & Howden, M. (2014). Framing disaster resilience: The implications of the diverse conceptualisations of “bouncing back”. Disaster Prevention and Management, 23(3), 252-270. https://doi.org/10.1108/DPM-07-2013-0130
Arrow K., Bolin B., Costanza R., Dasgupta p., Folke C., Holling C.S., Jansson B.-O., Levin S., Mäler K.-G., Perrings C., & Pimentel D. (1995). Economic growth, carrying capacity, and the environment. Ecological Economics, 15(2), 91-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-8009(95)00059-3
BigRentz. (2023, August 16). How Earthquake-Proof Buildings Are Designed in 2024. https://www.bigrentz.com/blog/earthquake-proof-buildings?srsltid=AfmBOorIY8a-5brIsvq_pbSqSSUuinc-rpcYCzb1FYv8Alr76c8mjNCG
Biling, P., & Madengruber, U. (2005). Coping Capacity: towards overcoming the black hole. Presentation of a quantitative model to measure the coping capacity of countries in a comparative perspective, World Conference on Disaster Reduction, Kobe/Japan, 18-22 Jan 2005.
Briguglio, L., Cordina, G., Farrugia, N., & Vella, S. (2009). Economic Vulnerability and Resilience: Concepts and Measurements. Oxford Development Studies, 37(3), 229-247, https://doi.org/10.1080/13600810903089893
Brooks, N., & Adger, W. N. (2004). Assessing and enhancing adaptive capacity, Technical Paper 7. In B. Lim, E. Spanger-Siegfried (Eds.), Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change: Developing Strategies, Policies and Measures (pp.165-182). United Nations Development Programme and Cambridge University Press, New York.
Cabinet Office Japan. (2019). White Paper on Disaster Management. Chapter 3. Preparedness for Nankai Trough Major Earthquakes: Research on Disaster Risk Management for Anomalous Phenomena. https://www.bousai.go.jp/en/documentation/white_paper/pdf/SF3.pdf
California Residential Mitigation Program. (2025, September 9). Protect Your Home from Earthquakes: Understanding California’s Seismic Building Codes. https://www.californiaresidentialmitigationprogram.com/resources/blog/california-residential-seismic-building-codes-and-ordinances
Cardiff University. (2025, September 15). Guiding local and regional economic resilience. https://sites.cardiff.ac.uk/building-resilient-economies/what-is-economic-resilience/
CDE. (2025, August 12). Coastal Protection and Flood Resilience Institute (CFI) Singapore. https://cde.nus.edu.sg/cfisg/cfrp/
Chew, W. (2019). Marina Barrage. NLB. https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=ab60094c-2bfe-44f0-8525-36d39126e500
Coaffee, J. (2008). Risk, resilience, and environmentally sustainable cities. Energy Policy, 36, 4633–4638.
Coxworth, B. (2013, May 17). SKWID harnesses the power of both the wind and the tide. NEW ATLAS. https://newatlas.com/skwid-wind-tidal-power-japan/27559/
CSIRO. (2020). CSIRO Report on Climate and Disaster Resilience, https://www.csiro.au/en/research/disasters/bushfires/report-climate-disaster-resilience
Cutter, S. L. (2016). Resilience to What? Resilience for Whom. The Geographical Journal, 182(2),110-113. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43868692
Cutter, S. L., Ash, K. D., & Emrich, C. T. (2014). The geographies of community disaster resilience. Global Environmental Change, 29, 65–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.08.005
De Graaf-van Dinther, R., & Ovink, H. (2021). The Five Pillars of Climate Resilience. In R. de Graaf-van Dinther (Ed.), Climate Resilient Urban Areas. Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies (pp. 1-19). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57537-3_1
Designboom. (2011, October 5). Emergency capsule for tsunamis. https://www.designboom.com/design/noah-emergency-capsule-for-tsunamis/
EDA. (2025, September 15). U.S. Economic Development Administration (EDA). https://www.eda.gov/
Engineering.com. (2023, April 14). Venice’s Tide Barrier Has Already Cost 6 Billion Euros—Will it Work? https://www.engineering.com/venices-tide-barrier-has-already-cost-6-billion-euros-will-it-work/
Environment Agency. (2025, November 18). The Thames Barrier. https://www.gov.uk/guidance/the-thames-barrier#how-the-thames-barrier-works
Flemming, J., & Ledogar, R. J. (2008). Resilience, an Evolving Concept: A Review of Literature Relevant to Aboriginal Research. Pimatisiwin 6(2),7-23. PMID: 20963184; PMCID: PMC2956753.
Folke, C. (2006). Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems analyses. Global Environmental Change, 16, 253–267.
Folke, C. (2016). Resilience (Republished). Ecology and Society. 21(4):44. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-09088-210444
Hashiguchi, Y., Yamano, N., & Webb, C. (2017). Economic shocks and changes in global production structures: Methods for measuring economic resilience. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, 09. https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/17d0694b-en
Hassink, R., & Chu, H. (2024). Resilience. In B. Warf (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25900-5_253-1
Holling, C. S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4, 2–23.
Institute for Sustainable Infrastructure. (2022, August 1). East Side Coastal Resiliency Project. https://sustainableinfrastructure.org/project-awards/east-side-coastal-resiliency/
IPCC. (2012). Field, C. B., V. Barros, T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K. L. Ebi, M. D. Mastrandrea, K. J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S. K. Allen, M. Tignor, & P. M. Midgley (Eds.), Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. Cambridge University Press.
Jakku, E., & Lynam, T. (2010). What is adaptive capacity. CSIRO, Australia.
Jang, L, & Wang, J. (2009). Disaster Resilience in a Hakka Community in Taiwan. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 3(2), 55-65. https://doi.org/10.1375/prp.3.2.55
Luke, J., Franklin, R C., Dyson, J., & Aitken, P. (2023). Building Toward a Disaster Resilient Health System: A Study of Hospital Resilience. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 17, e219. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2022.204
Marin, G., Modica, M., Paleari, S., & Zoboli, R. (2021). Assessing disaster risk by integrating natural and socio-economic dimensions: A decision-support tool. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, 77, 101032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seps.2021.101032
Masik, G. (2016). Economic resilience: the case of Poland and certain European regions. Geographia Polonica, 89(4), 457-471. http://dx.doi.org/10.7163/GPol.0068
McGlone, C. (2023, June 14). How protected is London from flooding? UNDRR. https://www.preventionweb.net/news/how-protected-london-flooding
Md Sham, Y. (2023, March 23). Singapore’s Flood Fighters – And Why We Need Them. Challenge. https://psdchallenge.psd.gov.sg/ideas/feature/singapores-flood-fighters-and-why-we-need-them
Modica, M., & Zoboli, R. (2016). Vulnerability, resilience, hazard, risk, damage, and loss: a socio-ecological framework for natural disaster analysis. Web Ecology, 16(1), 59-62. https://doi.org/10.5194/we-16-59-2016
Mohan, M. (2023). CNA Explains: Why does Singapore want to build a 'Long Island'? https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/long-island-cna-explains-east-coast-reclamation-property-climate-3950566
Mortimer, E., Bergin, A., & Carter, R. (2011). Sharing risk: Financing Australia’s disaster resilience. Research report. Australian Strategic Policy Institute. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep03976
MPA (2025, October 4). Impressive Earthquake-Resistant Structures. Martin Perry Associates. https://mperryassociates.com/2022/11/16/earthquake-resistant-structures/
NCCS. (2025a, November 23). Coastal protection. https://www.nccs.gov.sg/singapores-climate-action/coastal-protection/
NCCS. (2025b, November 23). Drainage and flood protection. https://www.nccs.gov.sg/singapores-climate-action/drainage-and-flood-prevention/
Netherlands Water Partnership. (2019). Solutions for emergency flood protection. SOLUTIONS FOR EMERGENCY FLOOD PROTECTION ResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net › post › download
Ngak, C. (2013, May 14). World's first wind-current power system to be installed off Japanese coast. CBS NEWS. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/worlds-first-wind-current-power-system-to-be-installed-off-japanese-coast/
Nicol, H. N., & Barnes, J. (2019). Resilience, Environment and Economic Development in the Canadian Arctic. In J. Higginbotham & J. Spence (Eds.), Canada’s Arctic Agenda: Into the Vortex (pp. 110–119). Centre for International Governance Innovation. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep21105.16
NOAA. (2025, September 12). About the National Coastal Zone Management Program. Office for Costal Management. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. https://coast.noaa.gov/czm/about/
NYC. (2025, September 11). Resiliency and Flood Protection. https://www.nyc.gov/site/escr/about/resiliency-and-flood-protection.page
Ogata, T. (2016). Disaster Management in Japan. Japan Medical Association Journal. 59(1), 27–30. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5059167/
PAP. (2021, August 18). Do 2030 powstanie 19 zbiorników retencyjnych w płd. i środk. Polsce. https://www.farmer.pl/fakty/polska/do-2030-powstanie-19-zbiornikow-retencyjnych-w-pld-i-srodk-polsce,110195.html (in Polish).
Parker, D. J. (2019). Disaster resilience – a challenged science. Environmental Hazards, 19(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/17477891.2019.1694857
Parsons, M., Morley, P. (2025, November 23). The Australian Natural Disaster Resilience Index. https://knowledge.aidr.org.au/resources/ajem-apr-2017-the-australian-natural-disaster-resilience-index
Parsons, M., Morley, P., McGregor, J., Glavac, S., Marshall, G., Hastings, P., Reeve, I., McNeill, J., & Stayner, R. (2017). Assessing Australia’s Resilience to Natural Disaster. Hazard Note, 39. https://www.preventionweb.net/files/54994_hazardnote39assessingausresiliencet.pdf
Roncaglia A. (2023). Theories of Economic Crises. Institute for New Economic Thinking, 2023, October 24. https://www.ineteconomics.org/perspectives/blog/theories-of-economic-crises
Rose A. (2010). Economic Resilience: Concepts and Measurement. Centre for Risk & Economic Analysis of Terrorism Events and Price School of Public Policy, University of Southern California. https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/reser_e/adam_rose_040321.pdf
Rose, A. (2007). Economic resilience to natural and man-made disasters: Multidisciplinary origins and contextual dimensions. Environmental Hazards, 7(4), 383-398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envhaz.2007.10.001
RZGW. (2024, May 10). Coraz bliżej realizacji budowy Zbiornika Wodnego Bzin. RZGW Warszawa. (in Polish). https://www.gov.pl/web/wody-polskie-warszawa/coraz-blizej-realizacji-budowy-zbiornika-wodnego-bzin
Saulnier D. D., Dixit A.M., Nunes A.R., & Murray V. (2021). Disaster risk factors – hazards, exposure and vulnerability. In WHO guidance on research methods for health emergency and disaster risk management. World Health Organization. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/345591
Savage, A. (2023, April 26). The Golden Gate Bridge is Preparing For 'The Big One'. The B1M. https://www.theb1m.com/video/golden-gate-bridge-earthquake-upgrade
Shaw, R., & Sharma, A. (2011). Climate and Disaster Resilience in Cities. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Smart Water Magazine. (2024, June 20). Advancing coastal defense: Singapore highlights new initiatives and research projects. https://smartwatermagazine.com/news/pub-singapores-national-water-agency/advancing-coastal-defense-singapore-highlights-new
Ting, W. K. (2023, December 2). IN FOCUS: With 'no place to retreat to', Singapore advances to protect its coastlines. CNA. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/rising-sea-levels-low-lying-vulnerable-coastal-protection-long-island-3955651
Tóth, B. I. (2015). Regional economic resilience: concepts, empirics and a critical review. Miscellanea Geographica – Regional Studies on Development, 19(3), 70-75. https://doi.org/10.1515/mgrsd-2015-0017
UNDRR. (2025, September 17). Definition: Capacity. https://www.undrr.org/terminology/capacity
Walker, B. H., Anderies, J. M., Kinzig, A. P., & Ryan, P. (2006). Exploring resilience in social-ecological systems: comparative studies and theory development. Special feature of Ecology and Society, No. 11 (1). http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-01573-110112
ZOE. (2025, September 15). Economic resilience. ZOE Institute for Future-fit Economies. https://sustainable-prosperity.eu/sustainable-prosperity/economic-resilience/

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2026 Economics and Environment
