Human capital efficiency in the Visegrad countries and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals
PDF

Keywords

economic growth
employees’ education level
human capital efficiency
the Visegrad Group
Sustainable Development Goals

How to Cite

Zieliński, M. , Nawrocki, T. and Adamska, M. (2026) “Human capital efficiency in the Visegrad countries and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals”, Economics and Environment, 97(2), p. 1257. doi:10.34659/eis.2026.97.2.1257.

Abstract

After the change of the economic system in the 1990s, the countries of the Visegrad group (V4: Czechia, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia) began to catch up economically with developed countries. After joining the EU, this process accelerated. The article concerns the relationship between the level of employee education and the efficiency of human capital in the V4 countries and the impact of this efficiency on sustainable growth. The aim of the article is to answer the question of whether the increase in the efficiency of human capital can be explained by the increase in employee education. To estimate the efficiency of human capital, the real GDP to employment ratio was used. The obtained results indicate that the efficiency of human capital in the V4 countries is approaching. The EU average, which, among others, contributes to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals.

PDF

References

Andrijauskiene, M., Dumciuviene, D., & Stundziene, A. (2021). EU framework programmes: positive and negative effects on member states’ innovation performance. Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy, 16(3), 471–502. https://doi.org/10.24136/eq.2021.017

Angrist, N., Djankov, S., Goldberg, P. K., & Patrinos, H. A. (2021). Measuring human capital using global learning. Nature, 592(7854), 403–408. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03323-7

Antohi, V. M., Zlati, M. L., & Ionescu, R. V. (2019). Visegrad Economies’ Active Implication in a “new” EU. A New Regional Economic Approach. The World Economy, 42(10), 2924–2974. https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.12823

Antonelli, G., Antonietti, R., & Guidetti, G. (2010). Organizational change, skill formation, human capital measurment: evidence from Italian manufacturing firms. Journal of Economic Surveys, 24(2), 206–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.2009.00615.x

Bal-Domańska, B. (2022). The impact of macroeconomic and structural factors on the unemployment of young women and men, Economic Change and Restructuring, 55, 1141–1172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10644-021-09341-9

Becker, G. S. (1993). Human capital: a theoretical and empirical analysis with special reference to education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Blundell, R., (2022). Inequality, Redistribution and Wage Progression, Economica, London School of Economics and Political Science, 89(S1), 160–177. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecca.12425

Buesselmann, S. (2009). Human Capital and Economic Growth, Analyzing the Impact of Skilled Labour on Economic Prosperity. Saarbruecken: VDM Verlag.

Castell´o-Climent, A. (2019). The Age Structure of Human Capital and Economic Growth. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 81(2), 394–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/obes.12274

Clark, A. E., Cotofan, M., & Layard, R. (2024). Do wages underestimate the inequality in workers’ rewards? The joint distribution of job quality and wages across occupations. Economica, 91(362), 497–546. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecca.12516

Dakhli, M., & De Clercq, D. (2004). Human capital, social capital, and innovation: a multi-country study. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 16(2), 107–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985620410001677835

Deming, D. J. (2022). Four Facts about Human Capital. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 36(3), 75–102. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.36.3.75

Diebolt, C., & Hippe, R. (2019). The long-run impact of human capital on innovation and economic development in the regions of Europe. Applied Economics, 51(5), 542–563. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2018.1495820

Dmytrów, K. & Bieszk-Stolorz, B. (2019). Mutual relationships between the unemployment rate and the unemployment duration in the Visegrad Group countries in years 2001–2017. Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy, 14(1), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.24136/eq.2019.006

EC. (2025). European Commission Programs. https://european-union.europa.eu/

Eurostat. (2024). Data on employment and GDP. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/

Flabbi, L., & Gatti, R. (2018). A Primer on Human Capital. Policy Research Working Paper 8309, World Bank Group. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/514331516372468005/pdf/WPS8309.pdf

Goldin, C. (2016). Human Capital. In Diebolt C. & Haupert M. (Ed). Handbook of Cliometrics, (pp. 55–86). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Verlag.

Habib, M., Abbas, J., & Noman, R. (2019). Are human capital, intellectual property rights, and research and development expenditures really important for total factor productivity? An empirical analysis, International Journal of Social Economics, 46(6), 756–774. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-09-2018-0472

Hanushek, E. A, Kinne, L., Lergetporer, P., & Woessmann, L. (2021). Patience, Risk-Taking, and Human Capital Investment across Countries. The Economic Journal, 132(646), 2290–2307. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueab105

Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2008). The Role of Cognitive Skills in Economic Development. Journal of Economic Literature, 46(3), 607–668. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.46.3.607

Hoeller, P. Joumard, I., Bloch, D., & Pisu, M. (2012). Less Income Inequality and More Growth – Are They Compatible? Part 1. Mapping Income Inequality Across the OECD. Economics Department Working Papers 924, OECD Publishing. https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k9h297wxbnr-en

Huggins, R., Prokop, D., & Thompson, P. (2017). Entrepreneurship and the determinants of firm survival within regions: human capital, growth motivation and locational conditions. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 29(3-4), 357–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2016.1271830

Jones, B.F. (2014). The Human Capital Stock: A Generalized Approach. American Economic Review, 104(11), 3752–3777. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.11.3752

Klinger, S., & Weber, E. (2019). GDP-Employment Decoupling in Germany. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 52, 82–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2019.10.003

Kokocinska, M., & Puziak, M. (2018). Regional income differences and their evolution after EU accession. The evidence from Visegrad Countries. Journal of Competitiveness, 10(4), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.7441/joc.2018.04.06

Kozera-Kowalska, M. (2024). Human capital for the green economy. Economics and Environment, 88(1), 674. https://doi.org/10.34659/eis.2024.88.1.674

Kónya, I. (2018). Labour Input and Labour Income. In I. Kónya (Ed.). Economic Growth in Small Open Economies. Lessons from the Visegrad Countries (pp.29–45). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69317-0_3

Kraay, A. (2018). Methodology for a World Bank Human Capital Index. World Bank. Policy Research Working Paper 8593, 1–59. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30466

Kryk, B. (2017). Cele społeczne zrównoważonego rozwoju. Polska na tle UE. Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu, 465, 87-95. https://doi.org/10.15611/pn.2017.465.09 (in Polish).

Lee, J. W., & Lee, H. (2016). Human capital in the long run. Journal of Development Economics, 122, 147–169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.05.006

Lee, S. Y., Shin, Y., & Lee, D. (2015). The option value of human capital: higher education and wage inequality. NBER Working Paper Series 21724, National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/papers/w21724

Lenkei, B. (2020). Essays on Human Capital. London: Middlesex University.

Lucas, R. E. Jr. (2015). Human Capital and Growth. American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings, 105(5), 85–88. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20151065

Lundberg, S. (2015). Noncognitive Skills as Human Capital. In Hulten C.R. and Ramey V.A. (Ed.) Education, Skills, and Technical Change: Implications for Future US GDP Growth (pp. 219–243). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Mulligan, C. B., & Sala-I-Martin, X. (2000). Measuring Aggregate Human Capital. Journal of Economic Growth, 5, 215–252. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009893417085

Mulliqi, A., Adnett, N., Hisarciklilar, M., & Rizvanolli, A. (2018). Human Capital and International Competitiveness in Europe, with Special Reference to Transition Economies. Eastern European Economics, 56(6), 541–563. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00128775.2018.1502612

Naval, J., Silva, J. I., and Vázquez-Grenno, J. (2020). Employment effects of on-the-job human capital acquisition. Labour Economics, 67, 101937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2020.101937

Nawrocki, T., Zieliński, M. (2024). Efficiency of human capital in Poland in terms of sectors and industries. International Journal of Management and Economics, 60(5), 354–365. https://doi.org/10.2478/ijme-2025-0002

Nilsson, M., Griggs, D., & Visbeck, M. (2016). Policy: Map the interactions between Sustainable Development Goals. Nature, 534, 320-322. http://doi.org/10.1038/534320a

OECD (2021). Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/b35a14e5-en

OECD (2023). Bildung auf einen Blick 2023: OECD-Indikatoren. Paris: wbv Media, Bielefeld/OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/34087b82-de

Østergaard, A., & Marinova, S. T. (2018). Human Capital in the Entrepreneurship Ecosystem. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 35(3), 371–390. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJESB.2018.095907

Rossi, F. (2019). Human Capital and Macro-Economic Development: A Review of the Evidence. The University of Warwick. The Warwick Economics Research Paper Series (TWERPS) 1246

Schultheiss, T., Pfister, C., Gnehm, A-S., & Backes-Gellner, U. (2023). Education expansion and high-skill job opportunities for workers: Does a rising tide lift all boats? Labour Economics 82(C), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2023.102354

Sianesi, B., & Van Reenen, J. (2000). The Returns to Education: A Review of the Macro-Economic Literature. London: London School of Economics and Political Science.

Sulich, A. (2016). Active labour market policy as a source of legitimacy for governments of Central Europe countries – comparative analysis. World Scientific News, 60, 78-91. https://worldscientificnews.com/active-labour-market-policy-as-a-source-of-legitimacy-for-governments-of-central-europe-countries-comparative-analysis/

Škare, M., & Lacmanović, S. (2015). Human capital and economic growth: a review essay. Amfiteatru Economic, 17(39), 735–760. http://hdl.handle.net/10419/168945

United Nations. (2023). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2023/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2023.pdf

United Nations. (2025). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2025/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2025.pdf

Vatsa, P., & Pino, G. (2023). Spatial spillovers and labour productivity convergence in Canada, Economics Letters, 230(C), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2023.111276

Vladušić, L., Živković, A., & Pantić, N. (2020). Macroeconomic analysis of GDP and employment in EU countries. Ekonomika, 66(1), 65–76. https://doi.org/10.5937/ekonomika2001065V

Woessmann, L. (2002). Cross-country evidence on human capital and the level of economic development. Historical Social Research, 27, 47–76. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20757951

Zieliński, M. (2024). Balance in the labour market in Poland as a Sustainable Development Goal and the effects of achieving it. Economics and Environment, 91(4), 943. https://doi.org/10.34659/eis.2024.91.4.943

Zimmer, S. G. (2023). Rethinking the role of human Capital in Growth Models. The Review of Austrian Economics, 36, 567–588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11138-021-00561-w

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Copyright (c) 2026 Economics and Environment

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.