Keywords
COVID -19 aid funds
public aid
air transport market in Poland
How to Cite
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic severely disrupted airport operations worldwide, prompting governments to introduce extensive state aid programs to safeguard the continuity of essential transport infrastructure. This study investigates the effectiveness of COVID-19-related state aid granted to Polish airports and its impact on their financial and operational recovery between 2016 and 2022. The analysis is grounded in the theory of public intervention, which posits that targeted government support can correct market failures and sustain critical services during systemic shocks. It also draws on organisational resilience theory, emphasising the role of adaptive capacity and institutional response in post-crisis recovery. The empirical framework employs financial indicators such as the operating profitability ratio, dynamic and structural measures, and an original indicator of uncovered loss per passenger. Data were obtained from airports’ financial statements and official government sources. The results demonstrate that state aid mitigated uncovered losses and supported the continuation of operations, though the effectiveness varied across airports. Larger airports with diversified revenue structures recovered more rapidly, whereas smaller regional airports remained more vulnerable. The analysis also highlights data limitations and the restricted generalizability of the findings beyond Poland. The study recommends aligning aid mechanisms with actual recovery rates, enhancing the resilience of regional airports, and integrating financial support with broader transport and sustainability policies.
References
Abbruzzo, A., Fasone, V., & Scuderi, R. (2016). Operational and financial performance of Italian airport companies: A dynamic graphical model. Transport Policy, 52, 231–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2016.09.004
ACI Europe. (2020). European airports report slower passenger growth & declining freight in 2019. https://www.aci-europe.org/media-room/235-european-airports-report-slower-passenger-growth-declining-freight-in-2019.html
Act from 2 March 2020. Act on special solutions related to the prevention and control of COVID-19 and other infectious diseases and crisis situations caused by them. Journal of Laws of 2020, item 374 (as amended). https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20200000374 (in Polish).
Bazargan, M., & Vasigh, B. (2003). Size versus efficiency: A case study of US commercial airports. Journal of Air Transport Management, 9(3), 187–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-6997(02)00084-4
Bezerra, G. C. L., & Gomes, C. F. (2016). Performance measurement in airport settings: A systematic literature review. Benchmarking: An International Journal, 23(4), 1027–1050. https://doi.org/10.1108/BIJ-10-2015-0099
Calderón Peralvo, F., Cazorla Vanegas, P., & Avila-Ordóñez, E. (2022). A systematic review of COVID-19 transport policies and mitigation strategies around the globe. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 15, 100653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2022.100653
Canzian, G., Crivellaro, E., Duso, T., Ferrara, A. R., Sasso, A., & Verzillo, S. (2025). The impact of financial support to firms during crises: The case of Covid aid in the EU. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5260779
Civil Aviation Authority in Poland. (2023a). Liczba obsłużonych pasażerów oraz wykonanych operacji w ruchu krajowym i międzynarodowym – regularnym i czarterowym w latach 2020–2022. https://www.ulc.gov.pl/_download/statystyki/2022/wg_portow_lotniczych_4kw2022.pdf (in Polish).
Civil Aviation Authority in Poland. (2023b). Air traffic in Poland. https://ulc.gov.pl/_download/statystyki/2023/by_airports_q12023.pdf
Civil Aviation Authority in Poland. (2025). Air traffic in Poland. https://ulc.gov.pl/_download/wg_portow_lotniczych_4kw2024_v2.pdf
Clarke, J. (2023). American Airlines reports second-quarter 2023 financial results.
Colak, O., Enoch, M., & Morton, C. (2023). Airport business models and the COVID-19 pandemic: An exploration of the UK case study. Journal of Air Transport Management, 108, 102337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2022.102337
Court of Justice of the European Union. (2023). Press release No 75/23: Judgment of the General Court in Joined Cases T-34/21. https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2023-05/cp230075en.pdf
Cowling, M., Liu, W., Chen, Y., Calabrese, R., & Vorley, T. (2024). Financing small and innovative firms during COVID-19. Economics of Innovation and New Technology, 33(8), 1214–1241. https://doi.org/10.1080/10438599.2023.2297255
Cybulak, P. (2020). Trzy małe lotniska ukarane przez polski rząd? https://www.pasazer.com/news/44813/trzy,male,lotniska,ukarane,przez,polski,rzad.html (in Polish).
Doganis, R. (2002). The airport business. Routledge.
Dube, K., Nhamo, G., & Chikodzi, D. (2021). COVID-19 pandemic and prospects for recovery of the global aviation industry. Journal of Air Transport Management, 92, 102022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2021.102022
Duchek, S. (2019). Organizational resilience: A capability-based conceptualization. Business Research, 13(1), 215–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40685-019-0085-7
European Commission. (2023). Winter 2023 economic forecast: EU economy likely to avoid recession, but headwinds persist. https://economy-finance.ec.europa.eu/economic-forecast-and-surveys/economic-forecasts/winter-2023-economic-forecast-eu-economy-set-avoid-recession-headwinds-persist_en
Eurostat. (2023a). Air passenger transport by type of schedule, transport coverage and country. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/AVIA_PAOC__custom_6510462/bookmark/table?lang=en&bookmarkId=1a8a82ac-f567-4b4a-8649-213aff815858
Eurostat. (2023b). GDP per capita in PPS. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tec00114/default/table?lang=en
Exchange Rates UK. (2023). Euro to Polish Zloty spot exchange rates for 2020. https://www.exchangerates.org.uk/EUR-PLN-spot-exchange-rates-history-2020.html
Graham, A. (2009). Managing airports: An international perspective (3rd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.
Graham, A., & Dennis, N. (2007). Airport traffic and financial performance: A UK and Ireland case study. Journal of Transport Geography, 15(3), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2006.05.001
Graham, A., Kremarik, F., & Willy, K. (2020). Attitudes of ageing passengers to air travel since the coronavirus pandemic. Journal of Air Transport Management, 87, 101865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2020.101865
Gudmundsson, S. V., Cattaneo, M., & Redondi, R. (2021). Forecasting temporal world recovery in air transport markets in the presence of large economic shocks: The case of COVID-19. Journal of Air Transport Management, 91, 102007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2020.102007
Guzman, L. A., & Hessel, P. (2022). The effects of public transport subsidies for lower-income users on public transport use: A quasi-experimental study. Transport Policy, 126, 215–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2022.07.016
Hiney, N., Efthymiou, M., & Morgenroth, E. (2023). Impact of Covid-19 on Irish airport stakeholder relationships. Annals of Tourism Research, 102, 103622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2023.103622
Hou, M., Wang, K., & Yang, H. (2021). Hub airport slot re-allocation and subsidy policy to speed up air traffic recovery amid COVID-19 pandemic—Case on the Chinese airline market. Journal of Air Transport Management, 93, 102047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2021.102047
IATA. (2020). Impact of COVID on European aviation. https://www.iata.org/contentassets/c0b84098b8d845d2a01f78f637521dbe/impact-covid-european-aviation-august-2020.pdf
IATA, & McKinsey & Company. (2022). Understanding the pandemic’s impact on the aviation value chain. https://www.iata.org/en/iata-repository/publications/economic-reports/understanding-the-pandemics-impact-on-the-aviation-value-chain
Ison, S., Francis, G., Humphreys, I., & Page, R. (2011). UK regional airport commercialisation and privatisation: 25 years on. Journal of Transport Geography, 19(6), 1341–1349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2011.06.005
Iyer, K. C., & Jain, S. (2019). Performance measurement of airports using data envelopment analysis: A review of methods and findings. Journal of Air Transport Management, 81, 101707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2019.101707
Kempton, B. (2020). How airlines are adapting to pandemic-related workforce shifts. https://www.randstadrisesmart.com/insights/redeployment/blog/how-airlines-are-adapting-pandemic-related-workforce-shifts
Ministry of Infrastructure. (2023). https://www.mi.gov.pl (in Polish).
Ministry of Justice. (2023). Financial document viewer. https://ekrs.ms.gov.pl/rdf/pd/search_df (in Polish).
OECD. (2020). COVID-19 and the aviation industry: Impact and policy responses. https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2020/10/covid-19-and-the-aviation-industry-impact-and-policy-responses_ecd7b91b/26d521c1-en.pdf
Oksiuta, A. (2020). Rząd przekazał ponad 142 mln zł na dofinansowanie polskich lotnisk. https://www.pap.pl/aktualnosci/news,759236,rzad-przeznaczy-ponad-142-mln-zl-na-dofinansowanie-11-polskich-lotnisk.html (in Polish).
Ordinance of the Council of Ministers from 4 June 2020(a). Ordinance on public-use airports where minimum operational readiness must be ensured. Journal of Laws of 2020, item 1035. https://dziennikustaw.gov.pl/D2020000103501.pdf (in Polish).
Ordinance of the Council of Ministers from 23 October 2020(b). Journal of Laws of 2020, item 1887. https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU20200001887/O/D20201887.pdf (in Polish).
Painvin, N. (2011). Airport performance: A rating agency perspective. Journal of Air Transport Management, 5(4), 298–305. https://doi.org/10.69554/WYLW6219
Polish Airports Enterprise (PPL). (2020). Business Group Annual Report 2019. Warsaw.
Polish Airports Enterprise (PPL). (2021). Business Group Annual Report 2020. Warsaw.
Polish Airports Enterprise (PPL). (2022). Business Group Annual Report 2021. Warsaw.
Raad, M., El Rafii, S., Doumani, F., Doumani, N., & el Cheikh, M. (2023). Global overview of early public policies towards the Covid-19 pandemic: Specific case review of Lebanon. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 96, 103995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103995
Remencova, T., & Novak-Sedlackova, A. (2021). The approach to evaluation of the economic and operational indicators of selected regional airports in the countries of Central Europe. Transportation Research Procedia, 59, 154-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2021.11.107
Rendeiro Martín-Cejas, R. (2021). Resident air transport subsidy impact on airport ground operations: Gran Canaria airport case study. Case Studies on Transport Policy, 9(3), 1097–1105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cstp.2021.05.010
Rey, B., Myro, R. L., & Galera, A. (2011). Effect of low-cost airlines on tourism in Spain: A dynamic panel data model. Journal of Air Transport Management, 17(3), 163–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2010.12.004
Rose, A. (2004). Defining and measuring economic resilience to disasters. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 13(4), 307–314. https://doi.org/10.1108/09653560410556528
Serrano, F., & Kazda, A. (2021). COVID-19 grounded aircraft—Parking and storing. Communications - Scientific Letters of the University of Zilina, 23(2), A103–A115. https://doi.org/10.26552/com.C.2021.2.A103-A115
Stiglitz, J. E. (2009). Government failure vs. market failure: Principles of regulation. In E. J. Balleisen & D. A. Moss (Eds.), Government and markets: Toward a new theory of regulation (pp. 13–51). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511657504.002
Sun, X., Wandelt, S., & Zhang, A. (2022). COVID-19 pandemic and air transportation: Summary of recent research, policy consideration and future research directions. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 16, 100718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2022.100718
Tłoczyński, D., & Zamojska, A. (2023). Prognoza ruchu lotniczego dla Polski na lata 2022–2040. https://ulc.gov.pl/_download/personel_lotniczy/dla-egzaminatora/Prezentacja_-_Prognoza_ruchu_lotniczego_dla_Polski_na_lata_2022-2040.r.pdf (in Polish).
Vernimmen, P., Quiry, P., Dallocchio, M., Le Fur, Y., & Salvi, A. (2018). Corporate finance: Theory and practice (5th ed.). Wiley.
Warnock-Smith, D., Graham, A., O’Connell, J. F., & Efthymiou, M. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 on air transport passenger markets: Examining evidence from the Chinese market. Journal of Air Transport Management, 94, 102085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2021.102085
Zhang, Y., Zhang, A., Zhu, Z., & Wang, K. (2017). Connectivity at Chinese airports: The evolution and drivers. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 103, 490–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2017.05.026
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2025 Economics and Environment